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Network Latency, Jitter and Loss Link layer bit errors causing packet corruption or Routing transients temporarily disrupting the path. 5.2.1 Propagation Delay and the Laws of Physics The speed of light dictates the top speed with which any information can propagate in a particular medium (air or optical fibre, for example). The speed of transmission along copper wires and cables is usually less than the speed of light in air, depending on the particular physical construction of the cables (for example, the dielectric properties of the insulation). Since the speed of light is finite, the laws of physics impose a lower bound on latency between geographically distant points on the Internet. We refer to this latency as propagation delay. As the speed of light is roughly 299,792 kilometres per second, propagation delays become noticeable over links spanning many thousands of kilometres or where the path hops through a number of routers each thousands of kilometres apart. For example, a 12,000-km path (roughly Sydney to Los Angeles in an airplane) would exhibit at least 40-ms latency (or 80-ms RTT) simply because of the finite speed of light. Most game players will come across this issue when they are connected to servers in different states or countries. It is also possible to find a high latency network path between two geographically close sites if the sites connect to the Internet via different ISPs (as noted in Chapter 4). A rough rule of thumb for propagation delay is latency (ms) = (distance of link in kilometres)/300 (If the speed of light in the medium is less than 300,000 kilometres per second the latency will be higher. This would be the case, for example, in optical fibre where the speed of light is about 30 % slower than that in a vacuum.) 5.2.2 Serialisation Serialisation occurs in many real-life situations. Crowds of people getting on a bus go through the door one at a time; we board planes one at a time; a worker loads crates onto a truck one at a time; and the one remaining bank teller who has not taken a lunch break can only process us one at a time. Serialisation occurs on most link layers, and is another source of latency in IP networks. Most link technologies are, at their lowest level, serial in nature. Frames are broken into sequences of bytes, and the bytes are sent one bit at a time. The finite period taken to transmit an IP packet one bit at a time is referred to as serialisation latency.This period of time depends on the speed of the link (in bits per second) and the length of the packet being sent. Serialisation latency adds to any speed of light delays experienced by a packet. Depending on the link layer technology, there might be extra bits at the beginning and end of each byte (traditional serial ports, for example) or at the beginning and end of each frame (standard Ethernet LANs, for example). Thus, the total serialisation latency experienced by an IP packet also depends on the framing protocol used by a particular link layer. Consider the time taken to transmit a 1500-byte IP packet on a 100-Mbps Fast

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